Catholic criticism has raised seven points: (i) God wants human life to begin

through the ‘conjugal act’ and not artificially; (ii) artificial interventions at the Nutlin-3 beginning of human life are dangerous and ethically unacceptable; (iii) limits can be imposed even upon an individual’s freedom to achieve a legitimate goal, such as having a child within marriage; (iv) the massive loss of preimplantation embryos characterizing IVF must be considered as a tragic loss of ‘nascent’ human persons; (v) Edwards bears a moral responsibility for all subsequent developments in assisted reproduction technology and for all ‘abuses’ made possible by IVF; (vi) there can be deleterious consequences for offspring of assisted reproduction technology; and (vii) Edwards’ discovery did not eliminate the causes of infertility. This article elaborates from the Roman Catholic perspective on each of these points, some of which are found to be more substantial than others. (C) 2011, Reproductive Healthcare

Ltd. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“Background: Although thiazolidinediones precipitate fluid retention in clinical trials. current guidelines advocate their use for patients with diabetes who are felt to be at low risk for heart failure (HF).

Methods and Results: Air inception cohort study was conducted using Saskatchewan Health databases spanning the years 1991 to 1999 (before use of thiazolidinediones)

to compare incidence rates of new HF in patients with recent-onset https://www.selleckchem.com/products/BKM-120.html diabetes HCS assay vs. the general population. Of 12,272 patients with new-onset type 2 diabetes (mean age 63 years), 718 (6%) developed HF over 5.2 years; median time until development of HF was 2.8 years. The adjusted rate of incident HF for the diabetes cohort was 794 cases per 100,000 person years compared with 275 per 100,000 person-years in the general population. Patients with recent-onset diabetes were more likely to develop HF than the general Population (adjusted rate ratio 2.9; 95% Cl 2.6 to 3.2) and the relative risk was most pronounced in those younger than 60 years (adjusted rate ratio 12.8. 95% Cl 8.2 to 20.0).

Conclusions: The incidence of HF is relatively high within 5 years of diabetes onset, calling into question the ease with which individuals with diabetes “”at low risk of HF”" can be identified. (J Cardiac Fail 2009,15:152-157)”
“Diabetes mellitus (DM) is known as an important risk factor for surgical site infection (SSI) in spine surgery. It is still unclear however which DM-related parameters have stronger influence on SSI. The purpose of this study is to determine predisposing factors for SSI following spinal instrumentation surgery for patients with DM.

110 DM patients (66 males and 44 females) who underwent spinal instrumentation surgery in one institute were enrolled in this study.

ResultsA continuous zeolite layer

cannot be formed on the surface of the irregular AC particles, even when pretreated by air oxidation or concentrated nitric acid, but can be synthesized using the alumina intermediate layer method. A catalytic test of CoZr/AC@ZSM-5 indicates that the zeolite layer shell has a marked effect on product distributions.

ConclusionAided by the alumina intermediate layer, zeolite crystals nucleate at the support/solution interface rather than in solution. For Fischer-Tropsch synthesis over CoZr/AC@ZSM-5, the product distributions are shifted to methane and light hydrocarbon compared with that of CoZr/AC. (c) 2013 Society of Chemical Industry”
“Background: Pulmonary hypertension (PH) can lead to right-side heart failure (RHF) Selonsertib concentration and death. There are no therapeutic recommendations for patients experiencing acute RHF in the course of PH. This study aimed to examine the safety and efficacy of inhaled iloprost in patients with precapillary

PH and RHF.

Methods and Results: Between October 2007 and December 2008, 7 patients with precapillary PH and RHF were enrolled. Per protocol, iloprost was inhaled hourly for a minimum of 12 hours during a 24-hour period. The starting dose of 2.5 mu g was increased hourly by 2.5 mu g as GSK3235025 long as the increases were tolerated. Safety and efficacy were determined Selleckchem AC220 by continuous invasive monitoring of systemic and pulmonary hemodynamic parameters. Systemic pressures remained stable during inhalation (66.1 +/- 6.9 mm Hg at baseline and 69.1 +/- 6.4 mm Hg immediately after inhalation therapy, P = 0.48). Cardiac index increased from 2.4 +/- 0.7 L/min/m(2) to 2.9 +/- 0.9 L/min/m(2) (P = .008). Pulmonary vascular resistance decreased from 634.6 +/- 218.3 dyn.s.cm(-5) to 489.6 +/- 173.8 dyn.s.cm(-5) (P = .044), and N-terminal B-type natriuretic peptide levels decreased from 13,591 +/- 10,939 pg/mL to 9,944 +/- 8,569 pg/mL (P = .051).

Conclusion: Blood pressure-guided hourly inhalation of iloprost may offer

a safe and effective strategy for the treatment of PH patients with RHF. (J Cardiac Fail 2011;17:813-818)”
“Reproduction of flowering plants requires the growth of pollen tubes to deliver immotile sperm for fertilization. Pollen tube growth resembles that of polarized metazoan cells, in that some molecular mechanisms underlying cell polarization and growth are evolutionarily conserved, including the functions of Rho GTPases and the dynamics of the actin cytoskeleton. However, a role for AGC kinases, crucial signaling mediators in polarized metazoan cells, has yet to be shown in pollen tubes. Here we demonstrate that two Arabidopsis AGC kinases are critical for polarized growth of pollen tubes. AGC1.5 and AGC1.7 are pollen-specific genes expressed during late developmental stages.

Cardiac toxicity is uncommon with amphotericin B with only few isolated reports. We report some patients with kala-azar in whom coadministration of SAG and amphotericin B led to arrhythmia and sudden death.”
“The

high interest in FeGa films is due to the high magnetostriction present in single crystal thin films. There is, however, significant reduction in the magnetostriction when grown using sputtering. The reduction is explained here using finite element analysis by considering the local magnetocrystalline and magnetoelastic behavior of the grains within the LCL161 datasheet sample. It is shown that, if the saturation magnetostrictive constant for each grain in a polycrystalline structure is of the order of 400 ppm, this is reduced to less than 90 ppm when the crystallites are randomly orientated. Furthermore, the inherent stress due to the sample fabrication leads to an increase in the anisotropy field. This work suggests that, with low stress fabrication and aligning the in-plane orientation of the crystallites, the potential in unlocking FeGa as a thin film for sensory applications can be realised. (C) 2011 American

Institute of Physics. [doi:10.1063/1.3618684]“
“Background and aims: Fish, especially fatty fish, Quizartinib research buy are the main contributor to eicosapentaenoic (EPA) and docosahexaenoic (DHA) intake. EPA and DHA concentrations in red blood cells (RBC) has been proposed as a cardiovascular risk factor, with <4% and >8% associated with the lowest and greatest protection, respectively. The relationship

between high fat fish (HFF) intake and RBC EPA + DHA content has been little investigated on a wide range of fish intake, and may be non-linear. We aimed to study the shape of this relationship among high seafood consumers.

Methods and results: Seafood consumption records and blood were collected from 384 French heavy seafood consumers and EPA and DHA were measured in RBC. A multivariate linear regression was performed using restricted learn more cubic splines to consider potential non-linear associations. Thirty-six percent of subjects had an RBC EPA + DHA content lower than 4% and only 5% exceeded 8%. HFF consumption was significantly associated with RBC EPA + DHA content (P [overall association] = 0.021) adjusted for sex, tobacco status, study area, socioeconomic status, age, alcohol, other seafood, meat, and meat product intakes. This relationship was non-linear: for intakes higher than 200 g/wk, EPA + DHA content tended to stagnate. Tobacco status and fish contaminants were negatively associated with RBC EPA + DHA content.

Conclusion: Because of the saturation for high intakes, and accounting for the concern with exposure to trace element contaminants, intake not exceeding 200 g should be considered. (c) 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

(C)

2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.”
“Otitis media (OM) is a pervasive illness in infants and children, and many children suffer multiple episodes during the first years of life, High rates of acute otitis media (AOM) are reported in developed and emerging countries. Early onset is common in both settings. Recurrent OM is associated with several factors, including early onset of disease, GSI-IX purchase having a sibling with a history of AOM and absence of breast-feeding.

Early onset disease has been hypothesized to result from Eustachian tube dysfunction, immunologic naivete and immaturity, and viral upper respiratory tract infection. Nasopharyngeal colonization with bacterial otopathogens increases the likelihood of AOM and LY3039478 in vivo the disease is most frequent in children with viral respiratory tract infection colonized with multiple otopathogens (Streptococcus pneumoniae, nontypeable Haemophilus influenzae [NTHi], Moraxella

catarrhalis), potentially as a result of inflammation resulting from competition among the bacterial species within the nasopharynx. Epidemiologic observations and studies of pathogenesis suggest that successful strategies for reducing the burden of disease will be best accomplished by targeting multiple viral and/or bacterial pathogens and preventing early onset disease. Guidelines (2004) for the treatment of AOM in children establish a clear hierarchy among the various antibacterials for the treatment of this disease.

Failure to achieve early bacterial eradication during antibiotic therapy for AOM increases the clinical failure GSK2245840 concentration rates in AOM in young children. Most recurrent AOM episodes occurring within I month after successful

completion of antibiotic therapy are due to new otopathogens. Failure to eradicate middle ear and/or nasopharyngeal pathogens is associated with higher rates of clinical recurrent AOM, even when the patients show clinical improvement or cure at the end of therapy for the initial episode. Optimal strategy for the prevention of AOM recurrences requires sterilization of the middle ear and eradication of nasopharyngeal carriage of otopathogens during antimicrobial therapy.”
“Climate change and variability may have an impact on the occurrence of food safety hazards at various stages of the food chain, from primary production through to consumption. There are multiple pathways through which climate related factors may impact food safety including: changes in temperature and precipitation patterns, increased frequency and intensity of extreme weather events, ocean warming and acidification, and changes in contaminants’ transport pathways among others. Climate change may also affect socio-economic aspects related to food systems such as agriculture, animal production, global trade, demographics and human behaviour which all influence food safety.

02) methods. PRSW decreased from 76 +/- 37 to 62 +/- 28 g/cm(2) (P = .003). On tissue Doppler imaging, nesiritide reduced the systolic annular tissue velocity of the mitral annulus from 8.0 +/- 1.9 to 6.9 +/- 1.3 cm/s (P = .04).

Conclusions: Nesiritide infusion acutely decreases derived measures of contractility and systolic function in patients with chronic heart failure. (J Cardiac Fail 2010;16:720-727)”
“Purpose: GSK1838705A The aim of this study was to determine brain oxygenation in full-term and preterm neonates using near infrared spectroscopy.

Material and methods: A total of 88 full-term and preterm newborn infants without hypoxic-ischaemic disorders

admitted to the NICU were examined using NIRS on the first day of life and on day 28 of life. Additional measurements were taken at the end of the first week of life in the premature neonates

group. Measurements Fosbretabulin of oxyhaemoglobin (HbO2), deoxyhaemoglobin (Hb), total haemoglobin (HbT) concentration and tissue oxygen saturation (Ox) were performed in 5 brain regions. Right and left frontal areas, the occipital area and right and left temporal areas were measured.

Results: In full-term healthy neonates a marked decrease in HbO, Hb and HbT values was observed on day 28 of life in all brain regions except the occipital area. In the neonatal period the greatest changes in brain oxygenation occurred in the right and left frontal regions of the brain. In preterm neonates constant values of HbO2 and Ox were observed in the first 28 days of life. In preterm newborn infants, as well as in full term newborn infants, similar Ox and HbO2 values were obtained on day 28 of life.

Conclusions: NIRS is a safe method and can be used to evaluate brain oxygenation in newborn infants. The results of these measurements are in accordance with changes in brain oxygenation in the first month of life, which are predicated on the basis of

the neonate’s physiology.”
“Background: The association between sleep-disordered breathing (SDB) assessed by polysomnography and cardiac sympathetic nerve activity (SNA) assessed by cardiac iodine-123 metaiodobenzylguanidine (123I-MIBG) imaging has not been investigated in patients with chronic heart failure (CHF).

Methods FDA approved Drug Library high throughput and Results: We performed cardiac 123I-MIBG scintigraphy and overnight polysomnography in 59 patients with stable CHF. The patients were classified into the 3 groups: 19 with no or mild SDB (NM-SDB, apnea-hypopnea index < 15); 21 with central sleep apnea (CSA), and 19 with obstructive sleep apnea (OSA). The cardiac washout rate (WR) of 123I-MIBG was obtained from initial and delayed planar 123I-MIBG images. The WR was higher in patients with CSA (54.2 +/- 11.6%) than in those with OSA (37.9 +/- 8.6%, P < .05) or NM-SDB (40.8 +/- 8.8%, P < .05). The WR correlated positively with central apnea index (p = 0.40, P = .002).

Conclusions: This study indicates that Canada’s regulations were not associated with reductions in methamphetamine-related hospital admissions. The January 2003 regulation’s focus on imports/exports rather than domestic distribution may help explain its lack of impact. In contrast, the

two other regulations had salient domestic foci – domestic precursor sales (July 2003) and domestic essential chemical manufacturing (January Ubiquitin inhibitor 2004). Both regulations, however, were associated with increases in admissions, rather than declines. Government reports indicate that a shift in methamphetamine production, from smaller-scale operators to more sophisticated crime organizations (groups better able to circumvent the regulations), occurred around the times of the regulations. Such a shift JQ1 molecular weight could increase supply and possibly admissions. (C) 2009 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“Background:

Measurement of limb occlusion pressure before surgery might lead to the use of a lower tourniquet cuff pressure during surgery and thereby reduce the risk of postoperative pain and complications. The primary aim of this study was to investigate whether the limb-occlusion-pressure method reduces the tourniquet cuff pressure used during total knee arthroplasty and if this leads to less postoperative pain compared with that experienced by patients on whom this method is not used. The secondary aim was to investigate whether there were any differences regarding the quality of the bloodless field, range of motion, and postoperative wound complications.

Methods: mTOR inhibitor One hundred and sixty-four patients scheduled to be treated with a total knee arthroplasty were randomized to a control group or to undergo the intervention

under study (the limb-occlusion-pressure [LOP] group). In the control group, the tourniquet cuff pressure was based on the patient’s systolic blood pressure and a margin decided by the surgeon (the routine method). In the LOP group, the tourniquet cuff pressure was based on the measurement of the limb occlusion pressure. The primary outcome measure was postoperative pain, and the secondary outcome measures were the quality of the bloodless field, knee motion, and wound-related complications at discharge and two months after surgery.

Results: The tourniquet cuff pressure was significantly lower in the LOP group than in the control group (p < 0.001). We could not demonstrate any differences between the groups regarding postoperative pain or complications, although the number of postoperative complications was relatively high in both groups. However, at discharge forty of the forty-seven patients with a wound complication had had a cuff pressure above 225 mm Hg and at the two-month follow-up evaluation fourteen of the sixteen patients with a wound complication had had a cuff pressure above 225 mm Hg.

An analysis of variability in execution using this function to quantify performance at the level of results offers substantially less sensitivity to coordinates than analysis of a covariance matrix of execution variables. This is an initial step towards developing coordinate-invariant analysis methods for movement neuroscience.”
“In this paper, we investigate the influence of electrode roughness on the leakage current in TiN/high-kappa ZrO2/TiN (TZT) thin-film capacitors which are used in dynamic random access memory cells. Based on a microscopic Bcl 2 inhibitor transport model, which is expanded to incorporate electrode roughness, we assess the ultimate scaling potential

of TZT capacitors in terms of equivalent oxide thickness,

film smoothness, thickness fluctuations, defect density and distribution, and conduction band offset (CBO). The model is selleck chemical based on three-dimensional, fully self-consistent, kinetic Monte Carlo transport simulations. Tunneling transport in the bandgap of the dielectric is treated, which includes defect-assisted transport mechanisms. Electrode roughness is described in the framework of fractal geometry. While the short-range roughness of the electrodes is found not to influence significantly the leakage current, thickness fluctuations of the dielectric have a major impact. For thinner dielectric films they cause a transformation of the dominant transport mechanism from Poole-Frenkel conduction to trap-assisted tunneling. Consequently, the sensitivity of the leakage current on electrode roughness drastically increases on downscaling. Based on the simulations, optimization of the CBO is suggested as the most viable strategy to extend the scalability of TZT capacitors over the next chip generations. (C) 2011 American Institute of Physics. [doi: 10.1063/1.3531538]“
“Quinacrine is one of the few molecules tested to treat patients affected by prion diseases, although the clinical outcome is

largely unsatisfactory. To identify novel derivatives Cilengitide with higher neuroprotective activity, we evaluated the effects of a small library of acridine derivatives. The 6-chloro-2-methoxyacridine derivatives bearing on position 9 a quinolizidin-1-ylamino (Q1, Q2) or a quinolizidin-1-ylalkylamino residue (Q3, Q4, Q6, Q7), the thio-bioisoster of Q3 (Q5), the 9-(N-lupinylthiopropyl)amino derivative (Q8) and simple acridines (Q9 and Q10) were considered. We compared the effects of quinacrine and these novel analogues in the inhibition of the cytotoxic activity and protease K (PK) resistance of the human prion protein fragment 90-231 (hPrP90-231). We demonstrate that quinacrine caused a significant reduction of hPrP90-231 toxicity due to its binding to the fragment and the prevention of its conversion in a toxic isoform.

Copyright (C) 2013 S. Karger AG, Basel”
“Objective. To compare the diagnostic values of 12- and 18-core biopsies with respect to prostate-specific antigen (PSA) levels, prostate volumes (PV) and prostate-specific antigen density (PSAD). Material and methods. Transrectal ultrasound-guided

prostate biopsies were performed on 233 patients at a single tertiary academic center. Patients were prospectively randomized to the two protocols (12 or 18 core). The cancer detection rates achieved using these Selleckchem Acalabrutinib two methods were analyzed at different PSA levels, PVs and PSADs. Results. Considering PSA level and PV simultaneously, patients were stratified into four groups (group A: PSA < 7 ng/ml and PV >= 45 cm(3); group B: PSA < 7 ng/ml and PV < 45 cm(3); group C: PSA >= 7 ng/ml and PV >= 45 cm(3); group D: PSA >= 7 ng/ml and PV < 45 cm(3)). 18-core biopsy

had a higher cancer detection rate than 12-core biopsy only in group C (55.2% vs 24.1%, p = 0.015). The 233 patients were also stratified into three groups according to PSAD level: the low PSAD group (PSAD < 0.15 ng/ml/cm(3)), the intermediate PSAD group (0.15 ng/ml/cm(3) <= PSAD < 0.25 ng/ml/cm(3)) and the high PSAD group (PSAD >= 0.25 ng/ml/cm(3)). In the intermediate PSAD group, 18-core biopsy had a higher cancer detection rate than 12-core biopsy (54.2% vs 28.9%, p = 0.048). Conclusion. An 18-core biopsy is more useful than a 12-core biopsy for detecting prostate cancer in patients with

Belnacasan high PSA and large PV, that is, with intermediate PSAD level.”
“The influence of the microstructural characteristics Etomoxir on the dielectric and electrical properties has been investigated for Nd(3+) doped lanthanum modified lead zirconate titanate ferroelectric ceramics, obtained by the conventional solid-state reaction method, by taking into account different sintering conditions. The grain growth mechanism has been investigated and a cubic-type grain growth law was observed for samples with grain size varying from 1.00 up to 2.35 mu m. The porosity and grain size dependences of the phase transition parameters, such as the maximum dielectric permittivity and its corresponding temperature (epsilon(m) and T(m), respectively ) were also investigated. The ac conductivity analyses followed the universal Jonscher law. The behavior of the frequency exponent (s) was analyzed through the correlated barrier hopping model. Both ac and dc conductivity results have been correlated with the observed microstructural features. (C) 2009 American Institute of Physics. [DOI: 10.1063/1.3063693]“
“Objective. To investigate the impacts of leuprolide acetate on the quality of life (QoL) of patients with prostate cancer. Material and methods. A total of 104 patients was enrolled in this prospective multicenter study. All patients received subcutaneous injections of 3.

Ectopic expression of HSP70 prevents receptor-dependent phosphorylation and nuclear translocation of Smad2, and blocks TGF-beta-induced epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) in HaCat cells. Our findings reveal an essential role of HSP70 in TGF-beta-induced epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) by impeding Smad2 phosphorylation.”
“Triclosan

was used as antibacterial agent in various vinyl thermoplastics and calcium carbonate (CaCO3)/thermoplastic composites and the antibacterial performances were studied through Halo and Plate-Count-Agar (PCA) test methods. The thermoplastics used were polyethylene (LDPE, MDPE, GSK923295 HDPE), polypropylene (PP), polystyrene (PS) and poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC). Escherichia coli (E. coli, ATCC 25922) and Stapphylococcus aureus (S. aureus, ATCC 25923) were used as the testing bacteria. The color index results suggested that introducing triclosan did not change the color of all thermoplastics used. The antibacterial results showed that the inhibition zone increased with increasing triclosan for nonpolar thermoplastics like LDPE, MDPE, HDPE, PP, and PS films whereas the opposite effect was observed for polar PVC film. The antibacterial efficacies of the triclosan decreased in the order of LDPE > MDPE > HDPE > PP > PS > PVC and this was confirmed by the triclosan releasing and FT-IR results. The differences in the antibacterial performances of the

studied thermoplastics with triclosan were associated with their rigidities, abilities to crystallize, PFTα in vivo and free volume or molecular density. The sensitivities of E. coli and S. aureus bacteria to the triclosan were found to be dependent on the testing methods used for the antibacterial performance evaluations. The addition of CaCO3 worsened the antibacterial performances in the triclosan filled HDPE and PS blends, but had a benefit for improved bacterial reduction in the triclosan-filled Vadimezan PVC blend. (C) 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 121: 253-261, 2011″
“Objectives. Although Emdogain is widely used as a gel in periodontal therapy, the exact mechanisms underlying

its regenerative ability still need to be further investigated. Therefore, we tested in vitro the effect of the product Emdogain on proliferation, viability, and migration of various human cell types of periodontium.

Study design. Proliferation and viability of alveolar osteoblasts (AOBs), epithelial cell line HSC-2, and human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) were measured using [(3)H]-thymidine uptake and 3,4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl- 2,5-diphenyl tetrazolium bromide (MTT)-assay, respectively. Cell migration was investigated in microchemotaxis chamber.

Results. The proliferation and viability of AOB, HSC-2, and HUVECs were significantly stimulated by Emdogain (12.5-250 mu g/mL) in direct relationship with the amount of product present in the cell culture medium.

Design-3 controlled trials.

Animals-Crossbred

feedlot cattle (trial 1, n = 184; trial 2, 138; trial 3, 138).

Procedures-Weaned calves were or were not vaccinated against BVDV at feedlot arrival (trial 1) or 2 (trial 2) or 3 (trial 3) weeks before feedlot arrival. During trial 1, half of the calves WH-4-023 in vivo were commingled with PI cattle throughout the feeding period. During trial 2, 63 calves were exposed to PI cattle before weaning and all calves were exposed to PI cattle throughout the feeding period. During trial 3, all study calves were exposed to PI cattle throughout the feeding period. Morbidity and mortality rates and average daily gain (ADG) data were analyzed.

Results-During trial 1, calves maintained with PI cattle mTOR inhibitor had a higher morbidity rate regardless of BVDV vaccination than did calves not exposed to PI cattle; however, for calves maintained with PI cattle, the morbidity rate for those vaccinated against BVDV was less than that for those not vaccinated against BVDV. During trial 2, calves exposed to PI cattle before weaning or vaccinated against BVDV had lower morbidity and mortality rates and increased ADG, compared with those for calves not exposed to PI cattle before weaning or vaccinated against BVDV. During trial 3, health and performance did not vary

between calves that were and were not vaccinated against BVDV.

Conclusions and Clinical Relevance-Exposure of cattle to BVDV naturally or through vaccination before or at feedlot arrival mitigated the negative effects of constant exposure to PI cattle.”
“The plastid ndh genes encode components of the thylakoid Ndh complex which purportedly acts as an electron feeding valve to adjust the redox level of the cyclic photosynthetic electron transporters. During the process of evolution from endosymbiosis to modern chloroplast, most cyanobacterial genes were lost or transferred

to nucleus. Eleven ndh genes are among the 150-200 genes remaining in higher plant chloroplast DNA, out of some 3000 genes in the original prokaryotic Cyanobacteria in which homologues to ndh genes encode components PHA-848125 purchase of the respiratory Complex I and probably other complexes. The ndh genes are absent in all sequenced plastid DNAs of algae except for the Charophyceae and some Prasinophyceae. With the possible exclusion of some Conifers and Gnetales, the plastid DNA of all photosynthetic land plants contains the ndh genes, whereas they are absent in epiphytic plants that have also lost genes for the photosynthetic machinery. Therefore, the functional role of the ndh genes seems closely related to the land adaptation of photosynthesis. Transcripts of several plastid genes require C to U editing. The ndh genes concentrate about 50% of the editing sites of angiosperm plastid transcripts.