4-terminal transfer and output measurements reveal that R-c decreases from 10(5)-10(6) Omega cm for 15 min air exposure to 3 x 10(3) Omega cm for at least 5 h air exposure of the gold electrodes before the flip-crystal FET is assembled. We conclude the reduction of R-c to be caused by a growing contamination layer on the gold electrodes that weakens the electrostatic coupling between rubrene crystal and gold PF-04929113 concentration electrode, and lowers the Schottky contact diode parameter V-0. In channel-dominated (low R-c) FETs, the mobility is in the range of 10-17 cm(2)/(Vs);

in contrast, in contact-limited (high R-c) FETs, the apparent mobility decreases significantly with increasing contact resistance. The apparent mu – R-c dependence is not intrinsic, but rather the result of incorrect assumptions of the potential and the charge carrier density in the channel region. Thus, the development of high-mobility PPAR inhibitor organic semiconductors requires further efforts to improve contacts beyond traditional metal electrodes. (C) 2014 AIP Publishing LLC.”
“Choroideremia (CHM) is an X-linked retinal degeneration of photoreceptors, the retinal

pigment epithelium (RPE) and choroid caused by loss of function mutations in the CHM/REP1 gene that encodes Rab escort protein 1. As a slowly progressing monogenic retinal degeneration with a clearly identifiable phenotype and a reliable diagnosis, CHM is an ideal candidate for gene therapy. We developed a serotype 2 adeno-associated viral vector AAV2/2-CBA-REP1, which expresses REP1 under control of CMV-enhanced chicken beta-actin promoter (CBA) augmented by a Woodchuck hepatitis Rigosertib molecular weight virus post-transcriptional regulatory element. We show that the AAV2/2-CBA-REP1 vector provides strong and functional transgene expression in the D17 dog osteosarcoma cell line,

CHM patient fibroblasts and CHM mouse RPE cells in vitro and in vivo. The ability to transduce human photoreceptors highly effectively with this expression cassette was confirmed in AAV2/2-CBA-GFP transduced human retinal explants ex vivo. Electroretinogram (ERG) analysis of AAV2/2-CBA-REP1 and AAV2/2-CBA-GFP-injected wild-type mouse eyes did not show toxic effects resulting from REP1 overexpression. Subretinal injections of AAV2/2-CBA-REP1 into CHM mouse retinas led to a significant increase in a- and b-wave of ERG responses in comparison to sham-injected eyes confirming that AAV2/2-CBA-REP1 is a promising vector suitable for choroideremia gene therapy in human clinical trials.”
“We evaluated if repeated stress modulates mucociliary clearance and inflammatory responses in airways of guinea pigs (GP) with chronic inflammation. The GP received seven exposures of ovalbumin or saline 0.9%. After 4th inhalation, animals were submitted to repeated forced swim stressor protocol (5x/week/2 weeks). After 7th inhalation, GP were anesthetized.

“
“Costunolide, isolated from the stem bark of Magnolia sieboldii, 10058-F4 in vivo is a sesquiterpene lactone that exhibits various biological and immunological actions. We investigated the induction mechanism of apoptosis by costunolide in a human B cell leukemia NALM-6 cell culture system. Costunolide (10 mu M)-induced apoptosis time-dependently increased, estimated by nuclear damage observation and flow cytometric analysis. Costunolide did not change Fas-associated factor 1 (FAF1), but

the phosphorylation of Fas-associated death domain (FADD) at serine 194 increased from early treatment. The activation of caspase-8 and -9 and degradation of poly-(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) was time-dependently detected by incubation with costunolide. Pretreatment of cells with caspase-3, -8 and broad spectrum caspase inhibitors significantly blocked costunolide-induced apoptosis, but caspase-9 inhibitor failed to block apoptosis. Telomerase activity was significantly suppressed after treatment with costunolide, and human telomerase reverse transcriptase (hTERT), a critical determinant of the enzyme activity of telomerase, decreased the expression of both mRNA and protein levels by costunolide. Costunolide-induced repression of telomerase was prevented by pretreatment of cells with caspase-3, -8 and broad spectrum caspase inhibitors, but caspase-9 find more inhibitor was no effect. These data suggest that one of the

costunolide-induced apoptotic mechanisms is that the receptor-mediated pathway precedes the mitochondria-dependent pathway, caused by the inhibition of telomerase activity via suppression of hTERT in NALM-6 cells.”
“The majority of pharmacokinetic studies of individual flavonoids or after ingestion of foodstuffs have overlooked Selleckchem PKC412 the chirality of some of these xenobiotics. In order to characterize for the first time the stereoselective pharmacokinetics of three flavonoids, hesperetin, naringenin and eriodictyol were intravenously administered (20mg/kg) to male Sprague-Dawley rats, and their stereospecific content was assessed in various fruit juices.

Concentrations in serum, urine and fruit juices were characterized via HPLC and verified by LC/MS. Short half-lives (3-7h) in serum were observed, while a better estimation of half-life (12-48 h) and the other pharmacokinetic parameters was observed using urinary data. The three flavonoids are predominantly excreted via non-renal routes (f(e) values of 3-7%), and undergo rapid and extensive phase II metabolism. The (2S)-epimers of the flavonoid glycosides and the S(-)-enantiomers of the aglycones were predominant and in some instances the organic fruit juices had higher concentrations than the conventional fruit juices. This study reports for the first time the stereospecific pharmacokinetics of three chiral flavonoids and their stereospecific content in fruit juices.

\n\nMethods. In 23 patients with recurrent gonarthritis despite previous intraarticular corticosteroid

therapy, a total of 41 intraarticular injections (20 infliximab and 21 methylprednisolone) were performed in 28 knees. Initial therapy was randomly assigned, and crossover therapy was eligible within 3 months. The clinical effect was assessed during 6 months of followup. PF-6463922 concentration The primary outcome was event-free survival, defined as the time after treatment until local retreatment was performed and/or nonimprovement of the knee joint score. Adverse effects were recorded during followup.\n\nResults. All patients treated with intraarticular infliximab had an insufficient response. In contrast, 8 of the 21 intraarticular methylprednisolone injections were effective (P = 0.004). Between groups, no differences in the patients’ age, disease duration, number of disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs, or previous intraarticular methylprednisolone were BI 2536 concentration observed. Reported adverse effects were not related to therapy.\n\nConclusion. Treatment with intraarticular infliximab injection was not effective in patients with a chronically inflamed knee joint. Intraarticular injection with methylprednisolone was

superior despite previous intraarticular corticosteroid therapy. Further investigation is needed to provide these patients with a better alternative.”
“Background: Medicinal plants are used worldwide for several human ailments including bacterial infections. The present work was designed to assess the in vitro antibacterial activities of some Cameroonian medicinal plants including Entada abyssinica, Entada africana, Pentaclethra macrophylla, Allexis cauliflora, Anthocleista leibrechtsiana, Carapa procera, Carica papaya and Persea americana against Gram-negative bacteria expressing multidrug resistant (MDR) phenotypes. Methods: The microbroth dilution was used to determine the minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimal bactericidal concentration (MBC) of the samples against eight bacterial strains belonging to four

species, Escherichia coli, Enterobacter aerogenes, Klebsiella pneumoniae and Providencia stuartii. Results: The extracts displayed selective antibacterial Selleck DAPT activities with the minimal inhibitory concentrations (MIC) values ranges of 64 to 1024 mu g/mL. The most active extract was that from Pentaclethra macrophylla (TPM) that showed inhibitory activities against five of the eight (62.5%) tested bacteria. The lowest MIC value (64 mu g/mL) was recorded with the crude extract of Entada africana against E. coli AG100A whilst the best MBC (256 mu g/mL) value was also obtained with methanol extract of Persea americana against this bacterial strain. Conclusion: The results of the present work provide baseline information on the possible use of Pentaclethra macrophylla, Entada africana and Entada abyssinica in the treatment of selected bacterial infections.

003). Within the initial treatment group, secondary analysis ACY-738 showed that the only clinical predictor of successful cessation of treatment was shorter symptom duration before receiving treatment (median 5.5 months vs 9 months; p=0.008). No other clinical features were associated with successful cessation of therapy. Thirty-five per cent of patients had low PD activity but levels were

not informative. Several immunological parameters were significantly associated with sustained remission including abnormal differentiation subset of T cells and regulatory T cells. Similar non-significant trends were observed in the delayed treatment group.\n\nConclusion In patients in remission with low levels of imaging synovitis receiving combination treatment with a TNF blocker and MTX, immunological

parameters and short duration of untreated symptoms were associated with successful cessation of TNF blocker therapy.”
“Background: Smoking is associated with endothelial dysfunction and arterial stiffness. Supplementation of omega-3 PUFAs is associated with better prognosis. Aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) supplementation on smoking-induced impairment of arterial function.\n\nMethods: We studied the effect of a 12 weeks oral treatment with 2gr/day of omega-3 PUFAs in 20 healthy smokers on three occasions (day0: baseline, day28 and day84). The study was carried out on two separate arms (omega-3 fatty acids and placebo), according to a randomized, placebo-controlled, selleck screening library double-blind, cross-over design. Measurements were carried out before (pSm), immediately and 20 min after cigarette Selleckchem MX69 smoking. Endothelial function was evaluated by flow-mediated dilation (FMD) of the brachial artery. Carotid-femoral pulse wave velocity (PWV) was measured as an index of aortic stiffness and augmentation index (AIx) as a measure of arterial wave reflections. Circulating levels of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha), interleukin-6 (IL-6) and plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1) were measured.\n\nResults:

Compared with placebo, omega-3 PUFAs treatment resulted in a significant improvement in pSm values of FMD (p < 0.05), AIx (p < 0.001) and PWV (p < 0.01). Although, acute cigarette smoking decreased FMD and caused an increase in AIx and PWV, omega-3 PUFAs treatment blunted the acute smoking-induced impairment of FMD (p < 0.001), AIx (p < 0.05) and PWV (p < 0.05) and significantly decreased levels of TNF alpha (p < 0.05) and IL-6 (p = 0.01) and increased levels of PAI-1 (p = 0.05).\n\nConclusions: Omega-3 PUFAs improved endothelial function and the elastic properties of the arterial tree in healthy smokers, with a parallel anti-inflammatory effect. (c) 2011 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

Estimation of observed and expected gene diversity provided evidence for population bottlenecks in the history of not less than 31% of all sampled populations. Reconstruction of the historical land use showed that patch area decline in populations that went through a recent bottleneck was significantly larger than that in populations that showed no evidence of a bottleneck. Assignment analyses showed low migration rates, suggesting BAY 80-6946 datasheet that replenishment of lost alleles through gene flow is highly unlikely. Overall, our results indicate that in the absence of gene flow strong decreases in calcareous grassland area may have

long-lasting effects on genetic diversity of plant populations and may hamper the success of restoration projects that simply aim at restoring initial habitat conditions or enlarging population fragments, as indicated by the fact that none of the recently restored areas has been occupied by C. acaule.”
“Based

on density functional theory and the Newns-Anderson model we present a detailed study of how an inclusion of higher order moments of the density of states can explain observed fine structure variations in oxygen bonding at metal surfaces. The many and sometimes closely coupled parameters that define the band-structure and its position are shown to force the very late transition metals to change shape abruptly. This induces variations in bond-strengths, which are not captured by the simple but successful d-band ASP2215 purchase model. We demonstrate that these variations GANT61 in vitro can be recaptured

by a slight modification of the descriptor.”
“The incidence of hybridization between coastal cutthroat (Oncorhynchus clarki clarki) and rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) varies widely among populations. The breakdown of reproductive isolation is of concern to managers, and raises the question: how have the two species retained their genetic and morphological divergence? Using a combination of mitochondrial DNA and nuclear DNA markers coupled with watershed attribute and disturbance data, we determined the distribution and frequency of trout hybridization on Vancouver Island, BC and the environmental factors associated with the hybridization. We found 284 hybrids (among 1004 fish) in 29 of 36 sampled populations. High variation in levels of hybridization was observed among populations, and no single environmental factor was found to dominate in determining hybridization levels. However, logging activity, urban infrastructure development, and stocking of hatchery rainbow trout played significant roles in determining hybridization levels, and populations in small watersheds are more at risk of reproductive barrier breakdown. This study illustrates that cutthroat-rainbow trout reproductive barrier breakdown is widespread on Vancouver Island and that anthropogenic disturbance plays a role in the process.

Rabbit antiserum against recombinant AtGH3.5 cross-reacted with the pea IAA-Asp synthetase, and a single immunoreactive polypeptide band was observed at 70 kDa. The purified enzyme GSK2126458 datasheet had an apparent isoelectric point at pH 4.7, the highest activity at pH 8.2, preferred Mg(2+) as a cofactor, and was strongly activated by reducing agents. Similar to known recombinant GH3 enzymes, an IAA-Asp synthetase from pea catalyzes the conjugation of phytohormone acyl substrates to amino acids. The enzyme had the highest synthesizing

activity on IAA, followed by 1-NAA, SA, 2,4-D, and IBA, whereas activities on l-Trp, IPA, PAA, (+/-)JA, and 2-NAA were not significant or not detected. Of 14 amino acids tested, the enzyme had the highest activity on

Asp and lower activity on Ala and Lys. Glutamate was found to be a very poor substrate and no conjugating activity was observed on the rest of the amino acids. Steady-state kinetic analysis indicated that IAA and aspartate were preferred substrates for the pea IAA-Asp synthetase. The enzyme exhibited both higher affinities for IAA and Asp (K (m) = 0.2 and 2.5 mM, respectively) and catalytic efficiencies (k (cat)/K (m) = 682,608.7 and 5080 s(-1) M(-1), respectively) compared with other auxins and amino acids examined. This study describes the first amidosynthetase isolated and purified from plant tissue and provides the foundation for future genetic selleck inhibitor approaches to explain the role of IAA-Asp in Pisum sativum physiology.”
“Aims: To investigate whether MHC genes are associated with basal pain sensitivity differences in Dark-Agouti (DA) rats and a novel congenic inbred DA.1U rats, whose genetic background is the same as DA rats except for major histocompatibility complex (MHC) genes.\n\nMain methods: Mechanical withdrawal threshold (MWT) and heat withdrawal latencies (HWL)

were compared in the two rat strains to reflect basal pain sensitivity. Immunohistochemistry was used to observe the expression level of RT1B, representative of MHC class II DQ region, selleck screening library and the basal expression of phosphorylated cAMP response element-binding protein (pCREB) in the L4/L5 spinal cord in the two rat strains.\n\nKey findings: The MWT and HWL of DA rats were significantly less than that of DA.1U rats. The expression level of pCREB in the L4/L5 spinal cord in DA rats was greater than that found in DA.1U rats. The expression level of RT1B in the spinal cord was greater in DA rats, which suggested MHC class II DQ region is likely involved in the differences in sensitivity to noxious mechanical and thermal stimulation between the two rat strains.\n\nSignificance: These results suggest MHC genes are associated with basal pain sensitivity, which may contribute to the identification of pain sensitivity and/or individually tailored pain treatment regimens. (C) 2010 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

The altered root growth in response to P and Mg supply was correlated with AUX1, PIN2, and PIN3 mRNA abundance and expression and the accumulation of the protein. Application of either auxin influx inhibitor or efflux inhibitor inhibited the elongation and increased the deviation angle of primary roots, and decreased

auxin level in Epigenetics inhibitor root tips. Furthermore, the auxin-transport mutants aux1-22 and eir1-1 displayed reduced root growth and increased the deviation angle. Our data suggest a profound effect of the combined supply of P and Mg on the development of root morphology in Arabidopsis through auxin signals that modulate the elongation and directional growth of primary root and the expression of

root differentiation and development genes.”
“Insulin can alter myocardial contractility, in part through an effect on the cardiac sarcolemmal Na+/Ca2(+) exchanger Tozasertib (NCX), but little is known about its mechanism of action. The large cytoplasmic domain (f-loop) of NCX is required for regulation by various intracellular factors, and we have shown previously that residues 562-679 are determinants of NCX inhibition by exchanger inhibitory peptide (XIP). Here we show that the same f-loop deletion eliminates the enhancement of NCX current by insulin, and we examine the signal pathways involved in the insulin response. NCX current (I-NCX) was measured in freshly isolated or cultured (up to 48 h) adult guinea pig myocytes and in myocytes expressing canine AR-13324 solubility dmso NCX1.1 with the 562-679 f-loop deletion (NCX-(Delta 562-679)) via adenoviral

gene transfer. I-NCX was recorded by whole-cell patch clamp as the Ni2+-sensitive current at 37 degrees C with intracellular Ca2+ buffered. Insulin (1 mu M) increased I-NCX (at + 80 mV) by 110 and 83% in fresh and cultured myocytes, respectively, whereas in myocytes expressing NCX-(Delta 562-679) the response was eliminated (with 100 mu M XIP included to suppress any native guinea pig INCX). The insulin effect on INCX was not inhibited by wortmannin, a nitricoxide synthase inhibitor, or disruption of caveolae but was blocked by chelerythrine, implicating protein kinase C, but not phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase, in the mechanism. The insulin effect was also not additive with phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate-induced activation of INCX. The finding that the 562-670 f-loop domain is implicated in both XIP and receptor-mediated modulation of NCX highlights its important role in acute physiological or pathophysiological regulation of Ca2+ balance in the heart.”
“Hemorrhagic transformation (HT) is a common complication of ischemic stroke that is exacerbated by thrombolytic therapy. Methods to better prevent, predict, and treat HT are needed. In this review, we summarize studies of HT in both animals and humans.

“
“Pulmonary intravascular macrophages (PIMs) are present in species such as cattle, sheep and horse and promote acute lung inflammation (ALI). Rabbits are often used as a model of ALI but there is controversy about the presence of PIMs in these species. Rabbits were treated with 10 mg/kg of gadolinium chloride intravenously

(GC; n = 6) or saline (n = 6) followed by euthanasia at 48 h post-treatment to determine the presence of PIMs. In a subsequent study, rabbits were pre-treated with GC or 0.9 % saline followed by 100 mu g/kg of E. coli lipopolysaccharide intravenously 48 h later. Rabbits were euthanized 24 h post-LPS treatment. Light and electron microscopy showed that PIMs attached to the capillary endothelium and were positive INCB024360 concentration for RAM-11 anti-macrophage SBE-β-CD research buy antibody. While GC treatment induced apoptotic PIMs, there was no difference in the PIM number between control

and GC-treated rabbits. Rabbits administered with LPS were 3.5 times more likely to die before the end of the 24-h period than those pre-treated with GC. Lung heterophil accumulation and IL-1 beta, TNF alpha and IL-6 mRNA expression were significantly higher in rabbits administered with LPS compared to those administered with GC before the LPS injection. PIMs from the LPS-treated rabbits were positive for TNF alpha. Lung, BAL and serum IL-8 and MCP-1 expression was not different between LPS rabbits with or without pre-treatment with GC. We conclude that rabbit lungs contain PIMs and that their depletion reduces endotoxin-induced lung inflammation. The presence of PIMs in rabbit lungs may need to be considered while using rabbit to model acute lung injury.”
“Attractive petals are an integral component of animal-pollinated

flowers and in many flowering plant species are restricted to the second floral whorl. Interestingly, multiple times during angiosperm evolution, petaloid characteristics find more have expanded to adjacent floral whorls or to extra-floral organs. Here, we investigate developmental characteristics of petaloid sepals in Rhodochiton atrosanguineum, a close relative of the model species Antirrhinum majus (snapdragon). We undertook this in two ways, first using scanning electron microscopy we investigate the micromorphology of petals and sepals, followed by expression studies of genes usually responsible for the formation of petaloid structures. From our data, we conclude that R. atrosanguineum petaloid sepals lack micromorphological characteristics of petals and that petaloid sepals did not evolve through regulatory evolution of B-class MADS box genes, which have been shown to specify second whorl petal identity in a number of model flowering plant species including snapdragon. These data, in conjunction with other studies, suggests multiple convergent pathways for the evolution of showy sepals.

Monotherapy with quetiapine seems to be efficacious in reducing symptoms of generalised anxiety disorder and this effect may be similar learn more to that of antidepressants. However, quetiapine’s efficacy must be weighed against its lower tolerability.”
“Previous Monte Carlo investigations of binary hard hyperspheres in four-dimensional mixtures are extended

to higher densities where the systems may solidify. The ratios of the diameters of the hyperspheres examined were 0.4, 0.5, and 0.6. Only the 0.4 system shows a clear two phase, solid-liquid transition and the larger component solidifies into a D-4 crystal state. Its pair correlation function agrees with that of a one component fluid at an appropriately scaled density. The 0.5 systems exhibit states that are a mix of D-4 and A(4) regions. The 0.6 systems behave similarly to a jammed state rather than solidifying into a crystal. No demixing into two distinct fluid phases was observed for any of the simulations. (C) 2013 American Institute of Physics. signaling pathway [http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.4789953]“
“We developed a highly sensitive displacement detection scheme for a GaAs-based electromechanical resonator using an integrated high electron mobility transistor (HEMT). Piezoelectric voltage generated by the vibration of the resonator is applied to the gate of the HEMT, resulting in the on-chip amplification of the signal voltage.

This detection scheme achieves a displacement sensitivity of similar to 9pm.Hz(-1/2), which is one of the highest among on-chip purely electrical

displacement detection schemes at room temperature. (C) 2011 The Japan Society of Applied Physics”
“California privet (Ligustrum ovalifolium Hassk.) plants exhibiting leaf yellowing, witches’ broom, dieback and decline symptoms were observed for two years (2010-2011) in three gardens at Adana region (Turkey). DNA isolated from symptomatic and healthy plants was used to amplify 16S rDNA Compound Library fragments by direct and nested-PCR. Phytoplasmas were detected in 21 symptomatic plants, out of 30 samples collected, whilst no PCR amplifications were obtained from asymptomatic plants. BLAST analysis of the 16S rDNA showed that the phytoplasma found in L. ovalifolium from Turkey, denoted as Turkish Ligustrum witches’ broom phytoplasma (TuLiWB), most closely resembled members of group 16SrII (peanut witches’ broom group) and shared up to 92 % sequence identity. Based on in silico 16S rDNA RFLP analysis and automated calculation of the pattern similarity coefficient, TuLiWB showed molecular characteristics different from all previously described phytoplasma species to represent a new taxon. Similar indication also emerged from the phylogenetic tree which allocated it in a novel discrete subclade within the phytoplasma clade. This is the first report on the presence of a phytoplasma affecting L.

“
“Twin gestations are fascinating and are also high-risk pregnancies. They account for approximately 3% of all pregnancies in the United States. Major obstetrical complications associated with twin pregnancies include hypertensive disorders of pregnancy, gestational diabetes, and preterm delivery. In addition, the death rate for twins and the rate of severe handicap in very low birth weight survivors of twin pregnancies is greater than that for singleton pregnancies. Ultrasound allows for stepwise evaluations at any time during a twin gestation. Current evidence suggests that uncomplicated diamniotic twins with concordant and appropriate growth beyond 24 weeks’ gestation should

be managed conservatively and the time and mode of delivery should STI571 order be determined on the basis of obstetrical history and fetal presentations.

Perinatal management of the remaining twin pregnancies depends on good clinical judgment, which is improved by the use of ultrasound imaging.”
“Flight initiation of the New Zealand wheat bug, Nysius huttoni White, in relation to temperature and wing forms was studied in the field over a period of 4 years. The results indicated that temperature is a major factor affecting flight initiation of this species. When air temperature rose to 27 A degrees C, and/or the ground temperature reached 40 A degrees C, flights occurred. These two temperatures are determined as thresholds for flight initiation. Flights were short, low and hop-like, covering up to five metres. Flight behaviour is displayed by a portion of individuals of a population in response to high temperature, Bucladesine nmr suggesting that other factors are involved. Flight can occur in adults of any generation except overwintered generation depending on ambient temperature, but mainly in those of second and third generations. Daytime flight is common, peaking especially around midday with high temperatures. Macropterous and sub-brachypterous forms are capable of flight, whereas the brachypterous GSI-IX form is apparently

flightless. Both sexes of flying adults have the same temperature thresholds for flight.”
“The neurotoxin beta-N-methylamino-L-alanine (BMAA) produced naturally by cyanobacteria, diatoms and dinoflagellates can be transferred and accumulated up the food chain, and may be a risk factor for neurodegenerative diseases. This study provides the first systematic screening of BMAA exposure of a large population through the consumption of seafood sold in metropolitan markets. BMAA was distinguished from known isomers by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry after acidic hydrolysis and derivatization. Using deuterium-labeled internal standard, BMAA was quantified as 0.01-0.90 mu g/g wet weight of tissues in blue mussel, oyster, shrimp, plaice, char and herring, but was undetectable ( smaller than 0.