The use of electron microscopy revealed that primary cilia are abundant in the kidney[4, 23] and remains a valuable technique for visualizing primary cilia because of the high resolution that can be achieved. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) forms an image from electrons passing through sections of resin-embedded specimens stained with electron-dense agents. For the detailed analysis of ciliary ultrastructure, TEM remains unsurpassed. TEM allows the distinctive internal

Lorlatinib ic50 9 + 0 microtubule-based architecture of the primary cilium to be visualized, readily distinguishing it from 9 + 2 motile cilia.[24] The ciliary membrane and associated components can also be visualized in detail in a good TEM preparation. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) uses electrons reflected from a dehydrated and gold coated specimen to form an image. This technique provides FK228 readily interpreted information concerning the three dimensional arrangement, shape and dimensions of primary cilia and the cells that bear them.[11, 25] Because of technical advances in optics and image processing, and the availability

of antibodies to label numerous ciliary components, fluorescence microscopy has become a widely used technique to analyse renal primary cilia. Intracellular transport systems shuttle integral structural elements and sensory components into and out of the primary cilium. These processes use systems such as intraflagellar transport (IFT),[26] a complex called the BBSome[27] and small GTPases,[28] all of which can be examined using fluorescence microscopy. Fluorescence-based visualization of primary cilia, particularly in the simplified system offered by cell culture, has provided a wealth of information relating to cilium assembly and cilium-based Anacetrapib signalling.[5, 29-35] Primary cilia can be examined in the kidney or in cultures derived from renal tissue. Obviously

the study of cilia in the kidney is the most relevant context to examine their roles in renal disease and injury. A range of mouse and other animal models of disease and injury are available and clinical samples can be used in many cases. However, the kidney is a complicated organ, featuring a number of cell types that contribute to the pathogenesis of disease and injury via interconnected mechanisms. Kidney tissue also needs to be fixed and sectioned for microscopy and these procedures can negatively impact upon the ability to detect the primary cilium. As such, cell culture systems are frequently used to study primary cilia. Many primary and immortalized renal cell lines produce a primary cilium in culture, providing a simplified and readily manipulated system to investigate this organelle.