In 2004, Chung et al. (2004) reported that patients of Han Chinese ancestry who developed SJS after exposure to carbamazepine were substantially more likely to carry the human leukocyte antigen (HLA) haplotype HLA-B∗1502, which is common in persons of Asian ancestry. This finding has been confirmed in other Asian populations, but not in non-Asians, in whom HLA-B∗1502 is rare. Recently, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration changed the Ulixertinib solubility dmso carbamazepine labeling to highlight the potential value of HLA testing in patients of Asian

ancestry being considered for carbamazepine treatment. This is an example of a strong genetic marker for a rare but serious adverse event. The clinical utility in patients of Asian ancestry seems clear, although Palbociclib manufacturer it is not yet clear

whether HLA-B∗1502 screening is being widely adopted into clinical practice. Cystic fibrosis (CF) was one of the first diseases whose causative gene, CFTR, was identified by human genetic mapping. Subsequent work over two decades revealed that each of the disease mutations in CFTR affects the protein differently, making corrective therapy very challenging. A small-molecule screening approach identified a compound that partially corrected the defect caused by the G551D mutation, present in about 4% of patients with CF. A version of this compound, known as ivacaftor, was later shown to improve health and lung function in patients over 5 years of age who received the drug

over 48 weeks (Ramsey et al., 2011). Ivacaftor has not yet been shown to affect survival in G551D carriers and apparently has no benefit for the majority of CF patients, who carry other mutations. Despite these limitations, ivacaftor is one of the first examples of an effective treatment that targets patients carrying a particular disease mutation. Pharmacogenomic studies have been underway for several years in neuropsychiatry, yet the field still Resminostat seems in its infancy. Many early studies suffered from a lack of large study cohorts and high-throughput molecular technology, which only became available relatively recently. More recent studies have generated promising leads, but effect sizes remain small and replication studies in large samples are generally lacking. Most drugs are at least partly metabolized by the cytochrome P450 (CYP) system, a family of enzymes that seems to have evolved to help cope with environmental toxins. Variation in the genes encoding the cytochrome enzymes is extensive and has long been known to affect metabolism of certain drugs, including psychotropics like olanzepine, sertraline, and several benzodiazepines. For these reasons, the CYP genes have been extensively studied in psychiatry and a gene chip that captures most of the relevant functional variation is being promoted for use in the field (for review, see Black et al., 2007).