4) DEXA, but not OA, reduced IL-6 and KC levels as compared with

4). DEXA, but not OA, reduced IL-6 and KC levels as compared with CLP–SAL (Fig. 4). No significant changes in the level of IL-10 Roxadustat nmr in BALF were observed among the groups (Fig. 4). In the present experimental model of sepsis induced by CLP in mice: (1) a single dose of OA (10 mg/kg) or DEXA (1 mg/kg) prevented impairment in lung mechanics, reduced alveolar collapse and neutrophil infiltration, and attenuated

cell apoptosis in the lung, kidney, and liver; (2) DEXA, but not OA, significantly decreased IL-6 and KC protein levels in BALF; and (3) OA, but not DEXA, increased SOD and prevented the increase in iNOS mRNA expression in lung tissue. The CLP model is considered to be the crucial preclinical test for any new treatment of human sepsis (Matute-Bello et al., 2001 and Lang and Matute-Bello, 2009), since it involves similar inflammatory and oxidative pathways (Orfanos et al.,

2004). The doses of OA and DEXA used in the current investigation were based on pilot studies considering improvement in lung function (data not shown). Dexamethasone was chosen rather than other corticosteroids that could reach superior pulmonary concentration, such as methylprednisolone SCR7 (Greos et al., 1991), owing to its intraperitoneal absorption characteristics, which are comparable to those of OA (Engelhardt, 1987). The dose of dexamethasone used herein was 1 mg/kg, which also improved lung morphofunctional variables in paraquat-induced lung injury (Santos et al., 2011). Two inflammatory pathways (Lang et al., 2002, Thimmulappa et al., 2006a, Thimmulappa

et al., 2006b and Guo and Ward, 2007) were analyzed to evaluate the mechanisms of action of OA and dexamethasone in sepsis. The first pathway is associated with the inhibition of signaling by NF-κB, modulating pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory Interleukin-2 receptor mediators. The pro-inflammatory cytokines KC and IL-6 play important roles in the immune response in sepsis (Andaluz-Ojeda et al., 2012 and Reinhart et al., 2012). KC possesses potent chemotactic activity for neutrophils (Watanabe et al., 1991) and has been suggested as an important mediator of tissue damage. IL-6 is elevated in septic patients and correlates with severity and outcome (Kantar et al., 2000). IL-10 is expressed in high concentrations during sepsis and can downregulate expression of TNF-α as well as other inflammatory cytokines (Marchant et al., 1994). The second pathway is associated with mechanisms related to oxidative stress. In this line, transcription factor Nrf2, the antioxidant enzymes GPx, CAT, and SOD, and iNOS were measured. Nrf2 regulates antioxidant defenses that protect against inflammation by inhibiting oxidative tissue injury (Kong et al., 2011). GPx acts as a reducing system for H2O2, and eliminates several toxic peroxides, preventing lipid peroxidation (Comhair and Erzurum, 2002). CAT catalyzes H2O2 dismutation and is more effective in the presence of high H2O2 concentrations.

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